Case example :

•    Mapping and Normalization process.

Mapping of ER Diagram above is:

For the mapping above we can see table PEGAWAI have NOPEG as primary key, and the foreign key NOBAG. According the ERD above, between PEGAWAI and BAGIAN have ANGGOTA relationship with cardinality M : 1. Table BAGIAN, have NOBAG as primary key, and NOPEG as foreign key. According to ERD above, between PEGAWAI and BAGIAN have PIMPIN relation with cardinality 1 : 1. Table PROYEK have NOPRO as primary key, and NOBAG as foreign key. Table TANGGUNGAN have NOPEG as foreign key. As we see the ER above, TANGGUNGAN is weak entity, so, TANGGUNGAN have NOPEG as foreign key from table PEGAWAI. As we see at the ER Diagram above, KERJA relation is M : M cardinality, so the relation KERJA is become a table, which have NOPEG and NOPRO as the foreign key.

So the normalization for the ERD above is :

•Database Normalization
Normalization is the building database structure process so the ambiguity mostly can be cleared. The normalization step, start from light step (1NF) into the tight process (5NF). Usually only the step 3NF or BCNF because it enough to produce tables in good quality.
There are some reasons why we do the normalization:
–    Optimization table structure
–    Increase speed
–    Clearing the same data input
–    More efficient in using storage media.
–    Decrease redundancy
–    Avoid anomaly (insertion anomalies, deletion anomalies, update anomalies).
–    Data integrity that increased
Not all of the table can defined into good table, a table can be said good table (efficient) if the table have criteria:
–    If it’s a table decomposition, so the decomposition must save guaranty (Lossless-Join Decomposition). It means, after the table be scattered into tables, the new tables can produce the formerly table.
–    Maintain dependence on the functional changes in data (Dependency Preservation).
–    Does not violate Boyce-Code Normal Form (BCNF)
If the three criteria (BCNF) can not be met, then at least the table does not violate the Normal Form of the third stage (3rd Normal Form / 3NF).

•    Functional Dependency
Functional Dependency describes a relationship attributes in relation
An attribute said functionally dependant on the other, if we use the value attribute to determine the value of the other attributes.
Symbol that is used “→“ to represent the functional dependency. Symbol “→” reads determine the functional.
–    Notation:A→B
A and B are attributes of a table. A means of determining the functional B or B depends on A, if and only if there are 2 rows of data with the same value of A, then B is also the same value
–    Notation:A→B or A x→ B
It is the opposite of the previous notation.
Example:

Functional Dependency:
•    NRP → Nama
•    Mata_Kuliah, NRP → Nilai
Non Functional Dependency:
•    Mata_Kuliah → NRP
•    NRP → Nilai
Functional Dependency from  nilai table
–    Nrp → Nama
Because for each value Nrp the same, then the value of the same name
–    {Mata_kuliah, NRP} → Nilai
Because the value of attributes depending on the NRP and Mata_kuliah together. In another sense Mata_kuliah for the NRP and the same, they also rated the same, because Mata_kuliah and the NRP is a key (is unique).
–    Mata_kuliah → NRP
–    NRP → Nilai
•    First Normal Form – 1NF
A table on the form said to be normal if I did not reside in the unnormalized form of a table, where there is a kind of field multiplication and field that allows a null (empty). In this form are Not allowed if there are Many attributes of value (Multivalued attributes). Attributes composite or a combination of both.  So,Price is the domain attribute must be atomic rates.
Example data mahasiswa;

Or

The table above does not meet the requirements 1NF
Decomposition becomes:
–    Tabel Mahasiswa :

–    Tabel Hobi :

•    Second Normal Form – 2NF
Normal form 2NF met in a table if it meets the form of 1NF, and all the attributes than the primary key, have a full Functional Dependency on primary key.
A table does not meet 2NF, if there are attributes that ketergantungannya (Functional Dependency) are only partial (only depending on the part of the primary key). If there are attributes that have no dependence on the primary key, then the attributes must be moved or removed.
Functional dependency X → Y is full if it is said to delete an attribute A from X meansthat Y is no longer dependent functional. Functional dependency X → Y said if deleting a partial attribute A from X means
Y is still dependent functional. Relation scheme R in the form 2NF if every non-primary key attributes of A€R depends on the full primary key fungsioanl R.
Example;
The following table meet 1NF, 2NF, including but not

Does not meet 2NF, because (NIM, KodeMk) is regarded as the primary key:
–    (NIM,KodeMk) →NamaMhs
–    (NIM,KodeMk) →Address
–    (NIM,KodeMk) →Matakuliah
–    (NIM, Kode) →Mk SKS
–    (NIM, KodeMk) →NilaiHuruf
Table needs to be some table didekomposisi eligible 2NF.
Functional dependency:
–    {NIM, KodeMk} → NilaiHuruf   (fd1)
–    NIM → {NamaMhs, Alamat}      (fd2)
–    KodeMk → {Matakuliah, Sks}    (fd3)
So the result:
–    fd1 (NIM, KodeMk, NilaiHuruf) → Tabel Nilai
–    fd2 (NIM, NamaMhs, Alamat) → Tabel Mahasiswa
–    fd3 (KodeMk, Matakuliah, Sks) → Tabel MataKuliah

•    Third Normal Form – 3NF
Normal form 3NF fulfilled if the form meets 2NF, and if there are no non-primary key attribute that has a dependence on non-primary key attributes of the other (transitive dependencies).

•    Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BNCF)
Boyce-Codd Normal Form constraint has a stronger form of the Normal third. To be BNCF, relations must be in the form of Normal Kesatu and forced each of the attributes depends on the function in the super key attributes.

•    Normal form of the fourth and fifth
Relations in the fourth normal form (NF 4) if the relation in BCNF and dependency tdak contain many values. To remove the dependency of many values from a relation, we divide the relationship into two new relations. Each relation contains two attributes that have a lot of relationship value. Relations in fifth normal form (5NF) deal with the property called the join without any loss of information (lossless join). Fifth normal form (also called the 5 NF PJNF (projection join normal form). The case is very rare and appear difficult to detect in practice.

Definition of the database are A set of data that stored in the magnetic disk, optical disk or other secondary storage Collection of integrated data-related data of an enterprise (company, government or private), the ERD is used for manufacturing production planning, actual production data, data ordering materials, etc.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database Management System is Collection / database combined with software applications that are based database. This Application programs are used to access and maintain the databases. So with DBMS can provide an environment that is efficient and easy to use, withdrawal and storage of data and information. It can help user more easier to access the data

BIT, BYTE, FIELD

Talk about database, we also talk about bit, byte and field. Bit is the smallest pieces of data that contains the value 0 or 1. Byte is set of bit-bit similar. Field is set of byte-byte similar, in the database used the term attribute ATTRIBUT/FIELD Attribute/field is the nature or characteristics of an entity that provides provide detail on these entities. Some relationship in database can also have attributes Example attributes: STUDENTS: NIM, NAME, ADDRESS CAR: NOMOR_PLAT, COLOR, TYPE, CC TYPES ATTRIBUTE The types of attribute can divided into:

• Single vs. multi value This attribute can be filled only at most one value o Single can be filled with more than one value with the same type of o Multi value

• Atomic vs. composition This attribute can not be divided into the attributes of smaller o Atomic can not be divided into a smaller attribute o Composition is a combination of several attributes of a smaller

• Derived attribute The derived attributes resulting from the date of birth attribute value can be derived from the value of other attributes

• Null Value attribute The Attributes that have no value to a record

• Mandatory attribute Value Attributes must have values

RECORD/TUPLE

Record/tuple is a line of data in a relationship. This record Consists of the set of attributes where the attribute-attribute-attribute is to inform each other entity / relationship fully

ENTITY FILE

File is a collection of similar records and have the same elements, the same attributes but different data in its value. Some of the File Type In processing applications, files can be categorized as follows: Master File, Transaction File, File Report, File History, File Protection, Job File DOMAIN The Domain is the set of values that are allowed to reside in one or more attributes. Each attribute in a database relational is defined as a domain

ELEMENT KEY DATA

The element key of record which is used to find these records at the time of access, or can also be used to identify each entity / record / line.

SPECIES OF KEY

There are some Species of key that the database have, those are:

• Super key is one or more attributes of a table that can be used to identify entity / record of the table are unique (not all attributes can be super key)

• Candidate Key is a super key with minimal attributes. Candidate must not contain a key attribute of the table so that the other candidate key is certain super key but not necessarily vice versa.

• Primary Key One of the key attributes of the candidate can be selected / specified a primary key with the three following criteria: 1. Key is more natural to use as reference 2. Key is more simple 3. Key is guaranteed its uniqueness

• Alternate Key is an attribute of the candidate key is not selected to be primary key.

• Foreign Key is any attribute that point to the primary key in another table. Foreign key will be going on a relationship that has cardinalities one to many (one to many) or many to many (many to many). Foreign key is usually always put on the table that point to many.

• External Key is a lexical attribute (or set of lexical attributes) that values are always identify an object instance.

ERD (ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM)

ERD is a model of a network that uses word to order is stored in the abstract system. The Differences between the DFD and ERD are if DFD is a model of network functions that will be implemented by the system then ERD is a model that emphasizes the network data on the structure and relationship data

ELEMENTS OF THE ERD

The elements of the ERD can divided into:

• Entity In the ER Diagram Entity is described with the form of a rectangle. Entity is something that exists in the real system and the abstract where the data stored or where there are data.

• Relationship ER diagram on the relationship can be described with a lozenge. Relationship is a natural relationship that occurs between entities. In general, the name given to the verb base making it easier to do the reading that relation

• Relationship Degree is the number of entities participating in a relationship. Degree which is often used in the ERD.

• Attribute is the nature or characteristics of each entity and relationship

• Cardinality tupel indicates the maximum number that can be related with entities on the other entity

DEGREE OF RELATIONSHIP

There are some kinds the degree of relationship:

• Unary Relationship model is the relationship between the entity originating from the same entity set.

• Binary Relationship model is the relationship between 2 entities.

• Ternary Relationship is a relationship between the instance of 3 types of entities are unilateral.

CARDINALITY

There are 3 cardinality relations, namely

• One to One: Level one to one relationship with the one stated in the entity’s first event, only had one relationship with one incident in which the two entities and vice versa.

• One to Many or Many to One: Level one to many relationship is the same as the one to many depending on the direction from which the relationship to be seen. For an incident on the first entity can have any relationship with many incident on the second entity, if the one incident on the entity the second can only have one relationships with the incident on the first entity.

• Many to Many: if any incident occurs in an entity many have relationships with other entities in the incident.

Notation (E-R diagram) Symbolic notation in the ER diagram is 1. Rectangle represent the collective entity 2. Circle represent the attributes 3. Rhomb part explains collective relationships 4. Line as the set of relationships between the entity and the collective entity with that Set of attributes

7.Data Storage
Data Storage is the place that data storage in the system. Symbolize with couple rowed line or two line with one open side. Process can take data from or into the database.
Naming Database:
•Name must mirroring data storage
•If the name more than one word use the connection symbol.
8.Data Dictionary
It helps the system user and person to understand in detail about the applications and organizing all of the data elements that system used so the user and system analyst have a same understanding about input, output, storage and process. In analysis step, data dictionary used to communicate between system analyst and user. In system design step, data dictionary used to design input, report, and database. Data flow in DAD have global characteristic, more detail information can see it in data dictionary.
Data dictionary load these things:
•Data flow name: must be noted so the reader that need more explanation about data flow can search it easily.
•Alias: alias or nickname from data can write it.
•Data shape: used for grouping data dictionary into using in system design.
•Data flow: shows source of data flow and where it flow.
•Explanation: give explanation about the data flow meaning.
9.Balancing in DFD
Data flow that come into and out from process must equal with data flow that come into and out from process detail in level below. Data flow name that come in and out from one process must same with the process detail. Number of and outside entity name must same with amount and name outside entity from that process detail.
These things that must be concern in more than one level DFD:
•Must have input and output balancing between one level the next level.
•Balancing between level 0 and level 1 see it in input/output from data flow into or from terminal in level 0,otherway balancing between level 1 and level 2 can see it from data flow into/from that process.
•Data flow name, data storage, and terminal in each level must same if have same object.
10.Prohibition in DFD
•Data flow not permitted from outside entity direct to another outside entity without any process.
•Data flow not permitted from data storage direct to outside entity without any process.
•Data flow not permitted from one data storage direct to another data storage without any process.
•Avoid Data flow from one process direct to another process without trough data storage.

There is a gap discrepancy between the purpose of the system and the system real condition. That mean, that is possible our system condition cannot support our system’s purpose. One of the causes is the problem detection report is not real, there are some detections that not mentioned in the report. That makes our system developers can’t reach the purpose in appropriate. The others of causes are:

1. The purpose is to ideal.

2. Less of resources.

3. System measuring not to accurate.

4. The old system purpose.

5. The different between Ideal system and temporary system.

To solve that problem we can used the Investigation System concept. The problems solving are:

1. The reduction of the running system, to reduce the running system we used the detail investigation.

2. Get the ideal system consensus.

3. Developing some alternative.

4. Choose the best alternative.

Why we doing the investigation to solving the problem? That’s because the purpose of the investigation is to show the real problems that happen in our system.

· PROBLEMS IN THE SYSTEM INVESTIGATION

In the implementation of the system investigation, there are also some problems in the investigation. The problems are:

1. Time

2. Cost

3. Science

4. Politic

5. Involved from the outsider

· RECOMMENDATION

After we do the investigation, we get the recommendation. The content of that recommendation are:

1. Not doing any action. In the case the investigation not found any problems.

2. Do the system maintenance. In the case there are some small problems.

3. Upgrade user skill and competency.

4. Considering total system modification.

5. Moving the problem into the developing system plan, that will do soon.

· INVESTIGATION TACTICS

To do the investigation we need the tactics. We need tactics so we can found the all of the problems, also we can know the causes of that problem, so we can choose the appropriate solution to solve the problem. We must do that tactics so that the all system element can accept the problem solving without disturb their activities.

There are some tactics that can do for the investigation. There are:

1. Listening to de system performer.

2. Do not give the early solution.

3. Comparing system user stories about the same case.

4. Attention to the logical inconsistency problem.

· INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUE

There are some techniques to do the investigation. The techniques are:

1. Direct techniques

a. Questioner.

b. Question and Answer.

c. Observation.

2. Indirect techniques

a. Procedure flow.

b. Document learning.

c. Sample

d. Tabular

After that we can get the system description in this time:

a. Input,

b. Output,

c. File,

d. Data Element,

e. Transaction Volume and Action Document,

f. Data Flow Diagram.

· ANALYSIS NECCESARY

In the analysis necessary there is an intensive interaction step between system analyst and end user that the system developing team show their skill to get the user response and trust so get the good participation.

1. 4 purposes that want to reach :

a. Explain the complete system.

b. Description the ideal information system.

c. Bring the ideal information system into the real condition, also consider the resource problem.

d. Giving support to the user trust into the system developing.

2. The Metode:

a. Question and Answer,

b. Questioner,

c. Observation,

d. Analysis procedure,

e. Documentation observation.

3. Resource problem

a. Time

b. Money

c. Skill

d. Technology

e. External Factor

4. Analysis necessary document:

a. Analysis guide: Relationship with end user, process observation, problem and file collecting.

b. User necessary: Real necessary, Report necessary, Training necessary, and new system effect.

c. System Problem: explain time and money, skill, technology, and external factor problem.

d. Document in shape like file collecting instrument, statistic consensus, logical and physical data flow, first file element in the file dictionary.

· GENERATING SYSTEMS ALTERNATIVES

There are some ways to connect the system condition at this time with the ideal system condition:

a. Make the alternative to solve the information system problem.

b. The best alternative implemented in wise.

For generating system alternatives there are some strategies that can used. The strategies are:

1. Distributed versus centralized processing

The change of the information decision from the centralized data processing into decentralized end user responsibility center.

2. Integrated versus dispersed database

System designing must considering what kind of data that can move into database and into file.

3. Surround Strategy of System Development

It’s important in the case of company takeover because another company information system is different with the company right now.

Tactic choice can do it before the operational design. For the operational design choice it divided into:

1. Input

a. Online Vs Off Line Data Entry

b. Keyed Vs Machine Readable Data Entry

c. Centralized Vs Decentralized Data Entry

2. Processing

a. Batch Vs Realtime record update

b. Sequential Vs Direct Access to records

c. Single Vs Multiple User update of records

3. Output

a. Traditional Vs Turn Around Documents

b. Structured Vs Inquiry based reports

· SELECTING THE PROPER SYSTEM

For selecting the proper system we must compare the system based the cost and profit in relative. There are 3 ways we can say system A more superior than the other

a. A low cost than B and the profit of A & B are equal.

b. A low cost than B and A have more profit than B.

c. A dan B mempunyai biaya sama namun keuntungan yang dihasilkan A lebih banyak.

For the system compare there are some methods:

a. Break Even point Analyisis

b. Payback Period

c. Discounted PayBack period

d. Internal Rate of Return

We also talk about the cost detail; it means we compare the information system cost trough the system live, analyst projecting some cost changes for the future. There are 3 information system cost, Linear, Exponential, Step Function.

The information cost can happen once and also can happen in continuous. The information systems that happen in once are onetime cost and development cost that happen in the developing system. The information systems that happen in continuous are recurring cost and operational cost that happen when information system operated everyday.

· INFORMATION SYSTEM FACTOR

Qualitative factor that show the good system work are:

a. Decrease the error

b. Decrease time for fix the error

c. Decrease response time from workstation alternative

d. Make faster the information willing

e. Increase the system security

f. More active resource record update

g. Increase the user satisfying

Company Strategies Factor is:

a. Consumer satisfying

b. Increase the sale

c. Consumer and vendor commitment

d. Product marketing information

· CONTINUE OR NOT DECISION

a. 1. If the company decides to develop the system, the information development will do the next process, its System Design process.

b. 2. In the other way, the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) will stop.

c. 3. It will find some problem in study system and usually the top management will request reworking of the study system.

d. 4. The model will explain part of the step that loops and sometimes information dept. will make decision to restart the early step before it explains the study system.

e. 5. With alternative, decision for restarting early step of SDLC or not called Go – No –Go Decision.

B.    The purpose or goal of developing an information system
The purposes of developing an information system are;
-    To solve the problems.
-    To get the opportunities
-    Run the directives that been given.

C.    The organization’s expectations after implementing an information system
The expectation of developing system can be divided into “PIECES”. The expectations are;
a)    Performance
We can measuring the performance from the throughput and response time. Throughput is the count of jobs that can do in several times. Response time is average delay time between 2 transactions or jobs summed with response time to response that job.
b)    Information
Raising the information’s quality that be served.
c)    Economy
Raising the benefit/profit or reduction from cost.
d)    Control
Raising the control to detect and fix the mistakes and cheatings that happened and will be happen.
e)    Efficiency
Efficiency related to the used of the resource.
f)    Services
Raising the services that given by the system.

D.    The principles of developing an information system
The principles of developing an information system are;
a)    The developed system are for the management
After the system developed, the system is used by the management to support the necessary that needed.
b)    The developed system is a big financial capital investment.
Every single financial capital investment must be considering these 2 things;
-    All of the alternative must be investigated.
To choose best and more profit alternative, we must investigated each of the alternative.
-    The best investment must be valuable
Investment can be profit if it valuable, it means the benefit is bigger than the cost. Cost-analysis or cost-effectiveness analysis can be used to decide the best or the most profit investment.
c)    The developed system is needed the educated person.
Educated person not only the person that formally studying in university, but also included the person on the job training. For example, the system analyst must have the skill, knowledge, and ability in his sector, its impossible the system analyst developing a system without the knowledge about what to do.
d)    Job phase
Without the planning and good coordination, the developing process will not finish in satisfying way. System Development Life Cycle shows the job phase and job task that must do.
e)    System development process not must in order
We can do some job phase in the same time, we do that to efficiency the time.
Time is money isn’t it? We do that also to minimize the cost.
f)    Don’t be afraid to cancel the project.
We must cancel the project if the project is not suitable anymore. We can push to finish the project, because it can make the system that we developed not run in the way should have been. To decide to run or cancel the project must trough accurate evaluation.
g)    The system documentation for the orientation of system development.
We make the documentation start from the planning of the system until all the development process finished. This documentation is make for communicate between system analyst and user.
E.    System development life cycle models
1.    Waterfall model

a)    Requirement
-    Problems identification
-    Decide the opportunities
-    Purpose or goal
-    Decide the rules
-    Decide the system necessary
b)    Design
-    Develop the system information
-    Start the documentation
c)    Implementation
-    Implementation the system, how success our system is work to solve the problems.
d)    Verification
-    System checking for any mistakes or errors in our system’s, is the system run well or not.
e)    Maintenance
-    How we maintenance the system, take care the system when always watching how it runs. The maintenance have a big part in this cycle, because for do the maintenance it will take along time.
2.    Iterative model

For the Iterative cycle it had some phase that same in the waterfall, but we can see this cycle have a testing and evaluation. That make this cycle better than the waterfall, that because after the implementation and deployment for user, we also doing testing to make sure our system done well. If after testing we find errors or mistakes we will do the evaluation to fix the error. After we evaluated the system we will start again from the beginning of the cycle (planning). That’s why we can see the cycle had a circle shape.
F.    Approaches of developing a system
1.    Classical approach vs Structured approach
In classical approach is used the phase on the system life cycle, but the weakness of the classical is that we don’t have details rules how to makes a good system in the cycle. That’s why in 1970 show the structured approach. In this system the analyst system had the steps and rules technically to make the best system based on the system life cycle.
2.    Piecemeal approach vs System approach
Piecemeal approach is the system development approach that focused in the activity or certain application only. This approach only focused goal from the activity and the application only.
System approach have an attention of information system as one integrated for each activity or application. It focused on the goal of overall organizations.
3.    Bottom up approach vs Top down approach
Bottom up approach start from the lower level organization (operational) that transaction happen.
Top down approach in reverse way that start from the upper level organization (strategic planning)
4.    Total system approach vs Modular approach
Total system approach is approach that developing system all at once that spread at all in system. This approach will useless for the complex money system, because it will difficult to develop.
Modular approach split the complex system into simpler some part or module, so the system will be easier to understand and developed.
5.    Great loop approach vs Evolutionary approach
Great loop approach used the overall change suddenly with modern technology. This approach also so expensive, as we know that the IT development growth so fast in this era, that need a lot of cost.
Evolutionary approach used the modern technology just only for the applications that needed in that time and will developed for the next period following the need based on the technology development.
G.    The meaning of methodology, method and algorithm
Methodology is a unity of the methods, procedures, work concepts, rules and postulates that used by a science, art or another discipline. Method is a systematic technique to work on something. Algorithm is procedures in serial to solve the problems.
Methodology in the system development is a unity of the methods, procedures, work concepts, rules and postulates that used to develop the information system.
H.    Three classifications of development methodology
a.    Functional decomposition methodologies
This methodology focused on dividing problem from the system into smaller sub-systems, so it will easier to understand, stacked, and applied. Example of this methodology:
-    HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input-Process-Output)
-    Stepwise Refinement (RF) or Iterative Stepwise Refinement (ISR)
-    Information-hiding
b.    Data Oriented Methodologies
This methodology focused on characteristic of file that processed.
1.    Data Flow Oriented Methodologies
In general this methodology based on dividing a system into modules based on the type file element and the activity of that module in system. Example:
-    SADT (Structured Analysis and Design Techniques)
-    Composite Design
-    SSAD (Structured System Analysis and Design)
2.    Data Structure Oriented Methodologies
This methodology focused on input and output structure in system. Example:
-    JSD (Jackson’s System Development)
c.    Prescriptive Methodologies
This methodology included:
-    ISDOS (Information System Design and Optimization System)
ISDOS is used for to optimization system development process. 2 components of ISDOS are PSL and PSA
-    PLEXSYS
PLEXSYS is used for transformation the high level computer statement into an executable code for hardware configuration that needed.
-    PRIDE
PRIDE offered by US company called M. Bryce & Associates. PRIDE is software that expert for analysis/structured system design, file management, project management, and documentation.
-    SDM/70
SDM/70 developed and marketed by US company called Atlantic Software, Inc. SDM/70 is software filled with methods, estimations, documentations, and administration guide to help user develop and maintenance the system.
I.    Tools for developing a system
The Tools for developing a system are:
a.    HIPO diagram, used in HIPO methodologies.
b.    Data Flow Diagram, used in SSAD methodologies.
c.    Structured Chart, used in SSAD methodologies.
d.    SADT Diagram, used in SADT methodologies.
e.    Warnier/Orr Diagram, used in Warnier/Orr methodologies.
f.    Jackson’s Diagram, used in JSD methodologies.
J.    Techniques used in developing a system
Techniques that used in developing a system are:
a.    Project Management techniques, are CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Techniques). These techniques are used for project scheduling.
b.    Fact Finding Techniques, technique that used for file collecting and find the facts in activity to learn the system. The techniques are:
-    Interview
-    Observation
-    Questionaires
-    Sampling
c.    Cost-effectiveness Analysis and cost-benefit Analysis.
d.    Run a meeting Technique.
e.    Inspection/walkthrough Technique.
K.    The Differences of being a system analyst and a programmer
System analyst is a person that analyzing the system (learn the problems that show off and decide the needed of system user) for indentifying the reasonable solve.
Programmer is a person that writing program code for an application based on design that have been make by the system analyst.
The knowledge a system analyst should posses are:
a.    Knowledge and skill in file processing, computer technology and computer programming.
b.    General Business Knowledge
This knowledge are include financial accounting, cost accounting, management accounting, and another business aspects.
c.    Quantitative method knowledge
In the case to design application models, system analyst used a lot of quantitative methods.
d.    Solving Problems skill
A system analyst must have a skill to solve the problem, analyzing and design a new system that solving that problem.
e.    Communication between personnel skill
The analyst system must have a skill how to communicate in spoken and writed.
f.    Make a Relationship between personnel skill
The analyst system must to make a good relationship with all workers. That can make work more effective. These good relationships also work between system analyst and users to.

The system is work to reach a purpose (goal) & to reach a target (objective).

b.The Characteristic of System
What about the component of system?? There are some points that explain about the characteristic of the system:
•The component of System
A system is consist of am1ount the components that be interacted one each other, its mean each of the component are work each other became one united, that can be used to solved the problem.
•The Limit of System
The limit between one system with the other system or with the outside’s environment ( in one area ). The system’s limit is possible be viewed as one united.
•The Outside’s Environment of the System
Anything from the outside of system’s limited area that can effected the operational of the system. The outside’s environment of system can be benefit or loss that system.
•The Connection of System
The connection’s media between one subsystem with the other subsystem. With this connection, the energy’s source can be possible flow from one subsystem to other subsystem.
•The Input of System
The energy from the outside of the system that became input of the system. The inputs are maintenance’s input and signal’s input. The maintenance’s input is the energy that be entered into the system that can be operated. The signal’s input is the energy that be processed to get the output.
•The Output of System
The result of energy that be processed and classified to be an output trough the process.
•The Process of System
The part of the system cycle that will change the input be output.
•The Target of System
The goal of the system, if the system doesn’t has a target, so the system’s operation won’t unusual.

c.The Classification of System
The system can be classified into several visions:
1.Abstract’s System & Physical’s System
The abstract’s system: The system can be idea that doesn’t appearance physically (Theology’s System).
The physical’s system: The system that appearance physically (Computer’s System).
2.Natural’s System & Human Imitation’s System
The natural’s system: The system that occur passing natural’s process, the system doesn’t made by human (circle of earth).
Human imitation’s system: The system that created by human (Human-Machine System).
3.The Specific’s System & Unspecific System
The specific’s system: The system operated with attitude that can be predicted.
The unspecific system: The system that future’s condition doesn’t be predicted.
4.The Closed System & Open’s System
The closed system: The system doesn’t relation and effect the outside’s environment.
The open’s system: The system is relation and effect the outside’s environment.
*The Basic’s Concept of Information
The information are the data that flow on the body of an organization. The data is describe the events and factual united.

*The Quality of Information
• Accurancy : The information must be free from the mistakes.
• Timeliness : The information that come to receiver mayn’t late.
• Relevant : That information has usual to user.